Thousands of Tehran residents have been pouring out of the capital since the escalation of the conflict between Israel and Iran.
Some eyewitnesses reported massive congestion on the exit roads of the capital.
At petrol stations, queues stretched for kilometres in places on Monday, while other streets were eerily quiet in the city of more than 15 million inhabitants.
On Saturday, Defence Minister Israel Katz issued a stark warning to Iran and its Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, saying that Tehran will burn if Iranian missile attacks on Israeli civilian areas continue.
Katz wrote on X on Monday that residents of Tehran will pay the price for attacks that killed civilians in Israel.
Many people packed only the bare essentials and fled to the east of the country, which is still considered comparatively safe.
In the west, where many military installations are located on the border, the full force of the Israeli air force has been in evidence since Friday, with an onslaught of strikes.
Northern areas on the Caspian Sea, which are generally popular with holidaymakers, have become a place of refuge.
Zadshad, a 35-year-old teacher, was one of those who fled with his family to Rasht, a town near the sea.
The journey that normally takes four hours took them more than a day on the choked roads leading away from the capital.
“Now that we’ve arrived, it’s no better. The shops are overcrowded and there is a shortage of food,’’ he told dpa.
Prices for accommodation in such areas shot up after the start of the hostilities.
Zadshad feared a war away from home with all the additional strains: “Living in these conditions is really hard.’’
Another family making their way to Turkey with their son also spoke of the high cost of finding safety.
“I borrowed 5,000 euros (5,770 dollars) from a friend so that we can travel to Istanbul to see our daughter in the hope that the situation will calm down a bit,’’ said the father.
“At the moment, we’re waiting until the streets are a little emptier and are thinking about the best border crossing to get to Turkey.’’
Not everyone can leave the country.
One official from Tehran wanted to drive towards Azerbaijan on the advice of his brother from the U.S., setting off with his 82-year-old mother on Sunday.
“But because of the heavy traffic, the petrol shortage, and my mother’s poor health, we had to turn back.
“Now we are waiting for better conditions to try again,’’ he said.
